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Chapter
1) What is conservative authoritarianism-how was it practiced in Yugoslavia, Poland, Hungary, and Portugal?
Conservative authoritarianism was the traditional form of antidemocratic government in European History. Leaders of such governments tried to prevent major changes that would undermine the existing social order. To do so, they relied on obedient bureaucracies, police departments, and trustworthy armies. Popular participation in government was forbidden or limited to bureaucrats, high-church officials, and landlords. Conservative authoritarianism developed in Yugoslavia because it was seen as a remedy to repress ethnic conflicts and preserve national unity. This form of government also developed in Poland in order to create a stronger state, especially since it was constantly torn by bitter party politics between Germany and Russia. It also developed in Hungary because large landowners and hostile peasants crushed communism. Thereafter, a combination of great and medium sized landowners instituted a semi-authoritarian regime. Hungary had a parliament, but elections were carefully controlled and the peasants did not have the right to vote. Portugal, constantly shaken by military uprisings after a republican revolution, also developed conservative authoritarianism. The church maintained the strongest possible position in the country.
) What are the characteristics of modern totalitarianism?
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Totalitarianism is a form of government in which the political authority exercises absolute and centralized control over the economic, social, intellectual, and cultural aspects of peoples lives. Under totalitarian rule the individual is subordinated to the state and opposing political and cultural expression is suppressed. The totalitarian state used modern technology and communications to exercise complete political power. Totalitarians believed in will power, preached conflict, and worshiped violence. Totalitarianism was in the end a permanent revolution, an unfinished revolution, in which rapid, profound change imposed from on high went on forever.
) What were the goals of Lenins New Economic Policy (NEP)?
Lenins New Economic Policy re-established limited economic freedom in an attempt to rebuild agriculture and industry. With the NEP, Lenin substituted a grain tax on the countrys peasant producers, who were permitted to sell their surpluses in free markets. Peasants were also encouraged to buy as many goods as they could afford from private traders and small handicraft manufacturers, groups that were now allowed to reappear. Economically, the NEP brought rapid recovery. In 16 industrial output surpassed the level of 11, and Soviet peasants were producing almost as much grain as before the war. Counting shorter hours and increased social benefits, workers were living somewhat better than they had in the past.
4) How successful was Stalins Five Year Plans for the industrialization of Soviet Russia? Discuss its positives and negatives?
The aim of Stalins Five Year Plans was to create a new kind of society and human personality as well as a strong industrial economy and a powerful army. Stalins Five Year Plan was for the industrialization of Soviet Russia was relatively successful. The output of industry doubled in the first five-year plan and doubled in the second. Soviet industry produced about four times as much in 17 as it had in 18. Industrial growth also went hand in hand with urban development. Cities rose where nomadic tribes had grazed their flocks. More than twenty-five million people migrated to cities during the 10s. However, the sudden creation of factories required a great increase in total investment and a sharp decrease in consumption. Hence, the money was collected from the people by means of heavy, hidden sales taxes. There was therefore no improvement in the average standard of living. Moreover, trade unions lost all their power, individuals could be sent anywhere in the country, and individuals needed police permission to move.
5) Why were the Russians working harder and relatively happy in the 10s despite a falling standard of living?
Russians were working harder and relatively happy in the 10s despite a falling standard of living because Soviet workers did in fact receive some important social benefits, such as old-age pensions, free medical services, free education, and day-care centers for children. Unemployment was almost unknown. Moreover, there was finally the possibility of personal advancement. Rapid industrialization required massive numbers of trained experts, such as skilled workers, engineers, and plant managers. Thus the state provided tremendous incentives to those who could serve its needs. Furthermore, many saw it as an ideological struggle against capitalism and fascism.
6) How was the status of women affected under Stalinist Russia?
The radical transformation of Soviet society had a profound impact on womens lives. The Revolution of 117 had declared complete equality for all women. In the 10s divorce and abortion were readily available and women were urged to work and liberate themselves sexually. After Stalin came to power sex was downplayed and the greatest changes remained in work and education. Women were continually told of their equality and were able to work in factories. Opportunities open to men were also open to women, but the home and children were still considered a womans responsibility.
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