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Why literature?
I chose to examine the use of literature in the reading class for a number of reasons. The first stems from my own enjoyment of literature. I think this is vital if the lesson is to be successful. If the teacher is not enthusiastic about the material being presented, then it is difficult to see how he or she can engender positive attitudes in the learners. Secondly, my own experience as both a language learner and an observer of my students has shown me the benefits that reading literature in L can bring. I think that any experienced teacher could identify those of their students who read in English outside of the classroom. This increased exposure to language stimulates acquisition and expands awareness. The readers in the class not only have more extensive vocabulary stores, they also seem to possess greater communicative competence than the non-readers.
At advanced levels, reading literature exposes the learners to language being used in unconventional ways. It informs them about the culture of places where the target language is used. Extensive reading promotes the continuing expansion of lexical knowledge and develops reading fluency. It also helps to develop the learners interpretive skills. Widdowson (184) says that the value of literature in language learning is that, of its nature (it) can provide a resource for developing in learners an important ability to use a knowledge of language for the interpretation of discourse. One way in which this ability may be developed is through the analysis of the use of figurative language in literature. The difficulties that this type of language presents for learners is dealt with in the next section.
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Literature is often rejected by both teachers and learners as being too difficult. Certainly, it will involve more preparatory work for the teacher. Authentic materials do not easily fit with the standard types of comprehension-testing exercises found in general course books. The treatment of the text and design of related activities has to be more imaginative for the reading to have validity.
I would include myself among those teachers who underuse literature in lessons. I have noticed though that , generally, there is little enthusiasm for practising and developing this skill in the classroom. If offered the choice of reading or doing another activity which is perceived as more interactive, the learners will usually opt for the latter. However, reading need not be a solitary activity. It really depends on what is selected and how it is treated. It would seem that , for many learners, the usual type of text and task found in course books is just not sufficiently interesting, relevant or motivating.. In course books, reading passages are often there to provide practice in language items. This is not to say that this is without value, but it does not provide an incentive for the learner to read on.
The use of authentic literary texts gives learners experience in real reading in L. Successful comprehension of genuine texts can be confidence-building and motivating for students. Carefully chosen material accompanied by relevant tasks can foster interest in reading in the target language and provide learners with transferable strategies for interpretation of meaning, which they can then apply away from the classroom. In addition, literature can involve the learner as a whole person in the classroom. It allows for genuine response from the students, not just language display.
Background & problems
The native speaker generally reads for a purpose, which will vary with the text selected. In each type of activity - skimming for gist, scanning for specific information or reading for pleasure and global understanding - we call upon a variety of reading sub-skills. Munby has provided an extensive list of these and we apply a great many of them in our reading of literature. The list, which is not exhaustive, would include the following;
• deducing meaning and use of unfamiliar words;
• understanding explicitly stated information;
• understanding information which is not explicitly stated;
• understanding conceptual meaning;
• understanding relations between the parts of a text through lexical cohesion devices;
• understanding cohesion between the parts of a text through grammatical cohesion devices
• interpreting text by going outside it.
Munbys list directs us towards two areas where even advanced learners may have difficulty in comprehending literary texts. The last point noted indicates that we need to use knowledge that is not provided within the language of the text, in addition to our knowledge of the language contained within it, in order to reconstruct meaning. Nunan (1168) describes the process thus;
In comprehending a given piece of language, we use what sociologists call interpretive procedures for achieving a match between our schematic knowledge and the language which is encoded systematically.
Our systemic knowledge is our linguistic knowledge; phonological, lexical, syntactical, semantic and discoursal. It derives from our experience of texts and how they are typically structured and organised. Our schematic knowledge is our knowledge of the world. This knowledge is stored in our memories and filed therein in inter-related patterns. This experiential knowledge, of the world and of known texts, guides us in our interpretation of new texts. Stanovich (180), in outlining this interactive model of reading, says that, at any stage, deficiencies at one level of knowledge are compensated for by drawing on knowledge at other levels.
When we expose our learners to authentic literary texts, we often make the assumption that their systemic knowledge will be sufficient to guide their comprehension. However, if there is a failure to transfer their L1 schemata to the L code, this will not be the case. This is a problem that can be overcome by reading strategy training and the use of adequate pre-reading activities to activate the appropriate schemata. It is possible with some texts though, that the required schematic knowledge is simply not in place. Nunan (11) cites research that shows that often, a breakdown in the comprehension process, which may present itself as a linguistic problem, in fact stems from absence of the relevant cultural knowledge. This is one area of difficulty that syllabus designers and teachers need to contemplate in the selection of texts for use with their learners.
A related problem that Widdowson (18) points out is that literature is representational not referential. There are no conventional schemata in operation, which means the learners are involved in increased procedural work in the reconstruction of meaning with literary texts. One area where this is especially true, and that will present real difficulties for non-native readers, is the use of figurative language in literature.
Metaphors, similes and poeticisms use words and phrases in unexpected ways, where the main or common meaning is altered to produce images in the mind or to make comparisons. It may be fixed, as in idioms - to beat about the bush, for example, or it may be creatively generated. The reader has to infer the link between two, normally unrelated items being compared, in fact to mentally complete the writers meaning for themselves. It is assumed, although this is not always the case, that the native reader can comprehend the extension of meaning deployed in the simile or metaphor. Often though, the link between the two disparate elements being compared is opaque to the non-native reader. The words may be familiar at the systemic level but the language is not conforming to the systemic rules the learner expects and the meaning cannot readily be inferred. Lazar (1646) identifies three steps in the process of interpretation;
1) comprehending that two things which do not normally collocate together are being compared or brought together;
) deducing which features of the one are salient in the comparison;
) reinterpreting how the meaning of the other is altered when these salient features are applied to it.
A further problem is that the use of figurative language is culturally bound. It stems from the underlying assumptions and cultural inheritance of the society from which the literature proceeds. One example is the use of colours and their associations. In English-speaking cultures, for example, blue signifies vulgarity - a blue joke - or depression, yellow, cowardice and red, anger.
In using literature to teach the reading skill, we need to sensitise our learners to these cultural factors, allowing comparison with those of L1 cultures.
Approaches & Methods
Three distinct approaches can be taken when using literature in the classroom; literature as content, literature for language analysis and literature for personal enrichment. The first is the most traditional treatment, looking at the history and characteristics of literary movements. In this approach, the social, historical and political background to text is considered and material is selected for the way in which it exemplifies certain movements or traditions. This approach has a broad educational focus but its use in the general language classroom may be limited. The linguistic difficulty of texts selected on this basis may prove to be in excess of the proficiency of even advanced learners and it offers restricted scope for learners own interpretation of text.
My feeling is that a combination of the other two approaches works best in the general classroom. The language-based approach uses detailed analysis of text to guide students towards meaningful, and personal interpretation. Texts can be selected for the stylistic features they highlight and the learners can use their systemic knowledge to form aesthetic judgements. A beneficial by-product of this is that it raises the learners general awareness of the language. A caution to be noted here though is that over-analysis can circumscribe the amount of personal response that learners can make. Gower (18610) states that analysis should be, a gesture towards greater understanding, towards better reading.
The inherent danger in the language-based approach can be averted by awareness on the part of the teacher of the importance of using texts in the ways that native-speakers do, which is where the personal enrichment approach comes in. Materials should not simply be chosen for their stylistic features but also for the fact that they reflect the learners interests, and allow them to draw on their personal experiences in their interpretation. The only drawback of such an approach is that not all learners may want to offer personal reactions and feelings in the classroom. By combining both of the approaches, the teacher can cater for different learner styles and personality types, with the advantages of each approach going some way to compensate for the disadvantages of the other.
The first step for the teacher is to select appropriate texts, that is, those that feature interesting language and are relevant to the learners needs and interests. The material must be such that the learners will want to engage with it and indeed, will be able to. Having selected the text, the teacher should then allow it determine the tasks and activities to be used in the lesson. Grellet (181) points out that, in real life, the purpose of reading varies, so in designing tasks for use in the reading class, the teacher should be aware of the purposes for which a native-speaker would read such a text.
Another important point, made by Grellet and many others, is that meaning is not inherent in text. Each reader will contribute their own meaning, depending on their expectations and previous experience. It is this, which makes the testing of comprehension in reading such a difficult task. It is too easy for the teacher to impose his or her own interpretation as the single, correct one. We should now look at some methods of overcoming this area of difficulty.
In real reading, the reader projects expectations and makes predictions, which are then measured, confirmed and modified by reading on. We do not normally expect to have to answer a series of questions after reading something. In the classroom though, too often reading is followed by teacher-led questions with pre-determined answers. Davies (180) makes the following comment on this type of procedure in the reading class;
Pupil response to the text is closely circumscribed it involves the more-or-less accurate answering of a set of questions.
The problem remains that we do need some measure of learners comprehension of the text, if only for the teacher to assess the validity of the materials chosen. Widdowson has addressed the question of comprehension checking and comes down firmly in favour of True or False questions as being the most accurate gauge of understanding. As these are susceptible to lucky guesswork though, he suggests supplementing them with additional questions which test the why of the answers.
Another solution is that proposed by Whitaker (18/) in which the learners themselves set questions for their peers and he lists three advantages for this;
1) learners have asked themselves questions at a level and of a kind which have proved significant to them;
) they will observe how their own questions are received by their peers, and compare the answers offered;
) the teacher will be able to observe, adjudicate, advise, inform.
On the surface, this seems an ideal solution but there are hidden problems. Firstly, this would be a very difficult task for learners, even at advanced levels; they would need training in the exercise and, secondly, it would be very time-consuming in the classroom. In spite of this, the benefits are obvious and it is not an option that should be dismissed. Learner generated questions would reflect their comprehension of, and response to the text.
As has been stated previously, it is essential, if the reading is to have authenticity, that classroom procedure reflects the purposes of real reading. Reading is an interactive process, with the reader actively engaged in the reconstruction of meaning - questioning, predicting and testing hypotheses - and this interaction can be fostered in the classroom through the use of pair and group work, involving inter-learner discussion of text and tasks. Discussion gives learners feedback on their interpretation of the text and provides the teacher with valuable information on the learners understanding of, and reaction to what they have read.
The difficulty of the L code in literary texts, involving unconventional schemata and figurative language is off-putting for many learners. As a way of overcoming the difficulties that genuine, and particularly literary materials, pose, Widdowson suggests that instead of limiting input, the teacher should limit intake. By this he means that, with careful task design, we can emphasise only particular aspects of the text. Another possibility is to control the contribution the learner needs to make in the completion of tasks, by giving some information to assist them, for example. The teacher, he argues, should try to set up the conditions necessary for an authentic response from the learner.
Conclusions
The general conclusion I have drawn from my research into the teaching of the reading skill, and more specifically the use of literature in developing this, is that I should be attempting to use more authentic materials in the classroom. On the surface, this statement sounds facile but the reading I have done has also shown me how I should be using the materials and which factors need to be considered in their treatment. When I use literature in future classes, I will take into account the following points.
1) Discussing reading preferences and difficulties more with my learners.
) In the selection of texts, noting my own purpose in reading and my instinctive reactions to the materials.
) Allowing the text itself to dictate the type of tasks and activities to emerge from it. By thinking about the text itself and my response as a native speaker, the tasks should maintain their authenticity.
4) Being very clear in my own mind about the aim of the lesson. Asking myself if it is to develop reading fluency, to focus on language features or to integrate the reading with another skill.
5) Thinking very carefully about whether questions are truly checking the learners comprehension of what they have read and whether they lead to real response.
6) Allowing sufficient time in the lesson plan for learner response and discussion through group and pair work.
7) Assisting learners to develop inferring strategies.
8) Raising learners awareness of how such strategies can be transferred to other texts and be used in other situations.
) Bearing in mind Widdowsons advice regarding restriction of intake rather than of exposure, and thinking of ways in which I can assist the learners to offer authentic responses and to complete tasks successfully.
10) Ensuring that where the reading skill is integrated with another skill, that this integration approximates as closely as possible to what the native reader might do with the text.
Bibliography
Davies, F. (Times Education Supplement, 0.07.8) Quiver full of darts - on reading for learning in the Secondary school. (quoted in Whitaker, 18)
Gower, R. (ELT Journal, Vol. 40/, Oxford University Press, April, 186) Can stylistic analysis help the EFL learner to read literature?
Grellet, F. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 181) Developing Reading Skills. A practical guide to reading comprehension exercises.
Lazar, G. (ELT Journal, Vol. 50/1, Oxford University Press, January, 186) Using figurative language to expand students vocabulary.
McCarthy, M. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 11) Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers.
Munby, J. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 178) Communicative Syllabus Design.
Nunan, D. (London, Longman Group Ltd., 11) Language Teaching Methodology.
Richards, J.C. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 10); The Language Teaching Matrix.
Rossner, R. & (ELT Journal, Vol. 7/1, Oxford University Widdowson, H.G. Press, January, 18) Talking Shop H.G. Widdowson on literature and ELT.
Stanovich, K. (Reading Research Quarterly 16/71, 180) Toward an interactive-compensatory model of Individual differences in the development of reading fluency. (quoted in Nunan, 11).
Widdowson, H.G. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 178) Teaching Language as Communication.
Williams, R. (ELT Journal, Vol. 40/, January, 186) Top Ten principles for teaching reading.
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